Pesach/Passover (Level 1)

 Pesach is a holiday that lasts 8 days in Diaspora and 7 Days in Israel. It celebrates freedom from the Egyptian bondage which lead to the emergence of the Jewish people as a nation. Hashem inflicted upon Pharaoh 10 plagues before Pharaoh finally agreed to led the children of Israel go. By celebrating Passover, it's as if being freed again and again from slavery each year. The events in the Torah are to be celebrated as such to be incorporated in the cycle of one's life each year.

There are Shabbath-like restrictions that apply on the first 2 and last 2 days. The intermediate days of Pesach are called Chol HaMoed (Day 3(2 In Israel) to 6), work is permitted, but with some resctrictions. An abridged Hallel and Mussaf is added.

One may not owe chametz on Pesach and may not eat bread products. During Passover, one eats instead matzah because when the ancient Israelites were in Egypt they left in a hurry and the dough didn't have a chance to rise. From matzah which does not rise, one can learn to be humble and modest, not "rising one's ego". Passover coincides with the time for spring cleaning though it's more than cleaning as one must remove all traces of hametz, any products that contain fermenting products or lead to fermentation. Hametz may either be burned or sold to a non-Jew for the period of Passover in which case there is a special way to relinquish one's chametz by signing a document to sell it for the period of Passover. There are special ustensils to be used for Passover in order to be Kosher for Passover, and one must keep everything kosher. The ustensils used at other times of the year are locked up so as not to be used, while the counters are to be washed with boiling water and then covered up.

How to Kosher for Passover: http://www.kashrut.com/Passover/CRC_Kashering/

When going to the supermarket to buy food, the products must be marked Kosher for Passover.

The traditional meal during Passover is called the Seder, which reenacts the Exodus, and it takes place on the first and second night. The Haddadah is read which recounts the Exodus of the ancient Israelites from Egypt. One drinks wine (4 cups), eats matzahs and bitter herbs to remember being slaves in Egypt.

A Seder plate contains the following:

• maror and chazeret: bitter herbs (horseradish, romaine lettuce) to remember the bitterness of slavery
• charoset=sweet, made from nuts, apples, cinamon, wine (and nuts honey dates also)
• karpas=parsley, potato, or celery to be dipped into salt water to remember the tears in Egypt. to be eaten after kiddush along with the question "Ma Nishtana?"
• a roasted lamb/goat shankbone (Zeroa)
• a hard boiled egg (Beitzah) which symbolizes the sacrifice brought in the Temple in Jerusalem and is a reminder of morning over the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.

There is also a plate with three matzot, separated from each other through napkins. The middle one is to be broken in half and one half will be the afikoman. The top and other half matzot are for the hamotzi bracha, while the bottom matzah is for the korech. The afikoman is eaten at the end of the meal as dessert. There is the custom to hide the afikoman before the dessert and children are to find it.

On the last day of Passover there is the custom to stay awake all night long b/c during this time, the Jewish people were crossing the Red Sea.

Ta'anit Esther and Purim (Level 1)

The fast of Esther occurs the day before Purim from dawn to dusk. The Jewish people along with Esther and Mordechai fasted as there was a decree to annihilate all the Jews given by Haman.

Purim celebrates the victory of the Jews over this evil decree. On Purim, the Book of Esther is read. There is the custom to give mishloach manot, charity to the poor, and to have a meal to celebrate. People can dress up for Purim, and there is a custom that Ashkenazim eat hamantaschen (Haman's pockets/ears) and kreplach, while Sephardim eat fazuelos,  and to theoretically speaking, drink wine until one does not know the difference between "cursed is Haman" and "blessed is Mordechai".


Since the entire miracle of Purim came about through wine, our sages obligated us to get drunk, or at least to drink more than what we are used to, in order to remember the great miracle. However, if one knows oneself, and is likely to neglect the performance of a mitzvah [commandment], such as washing one's hands before eating bread or making a blessing over food before and after eating or that one might forget to pray or might act in a light-headed way, it is better not to get drunk. (Quoted in Be'ur Halakhah 694, s.v. "Ad") http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Jewish_Holidays/Purim/At_Home/Meal/Drinking_on_Purim.shtml

הלוח העברי****Hebrew Calendar Basics****

Months 

1. Nissan
2. Iyar
3. Sivan
4. Tamuz
5. Av
6. Elul
7. Tishrei
8. Cheshvan
9. Kislev
10. Tevet
11. Shevat
12. Adar I
13. (Adar II)

Days of the Week:

Yom Rishon - יום ראשון 
Yom Sheni - יום שני 
Yom Shlishi - יום שלישי
Yom Reviʻi - יום רבעי 
Yom Chamishi - יום חמישי 
Yom Shishi - יום ששי 
Yom Shabbat - יום שבת

The Hebrew Calendar is based on the lunar cycle. There are 12 months, of 29 or 30 days.
In a leap year, there is an extra month called Adar I which is added after Shevat, and the Adar that's usually there is referred to as Adar II.


The day in the Hebrew Calendar is calculated from sunset to sunset.

Tu BiShvat: New Year for the Trees (Level 1)

In Judaism trees are special, so special they have their own New Year. There are 4 New Years in Judaism (the New Year for Kings and Festivals (1 Nisan), New Year for Animal Tithes (1 Elul), the year for calendar, sabbatical years and jubilees, planting and sowing (1, 2 Tishrei-Rosh HaShana), and The New Year for Trees (15 of Shevat)

In the Torah, Israel is praised for being:  "A land of wheat and barley and vines and fig trees and pomegranates, a land of olive trees and honey" (Devarim 8).

Tu BiShvat occurs on the 15th day in the month of Shevat. Since there are regulations on how to benefit from the fruits of the trees, this helps count the years for trees. There is a special seder where fruits are eaten.

A special meaning behind this holidays is that it celebrates potential, the potential of the trees to grow, become beautiful, giving flowers and producing fruits. From the trees, one can learn to recognize the potential of a tree for growth even before there are signs that its leafs emerge.

The message of this holiday is about learning to be optimistic.

Yomim Tovim Calendar

From http://www.ou.org/holidays/calendar/2011

Holiday	Date(s) in 2011 5771 / 5772	Date(s) in 2012 5772 / 5773	Work Restrictions
Tu B’Shevat	Thu Jan 20	Wed Feb 8	No restrictions
Taanit Esther	Thu Mar 17	Wed Mar 7	No restrictions
Purim	Sun Mar 20	Thu Mar 8	Limited restrictions on work
Pesach	Tue Apr 19 - Tue Apr 26	Sat Apr 7 - Sat Apr 14	Sabbath-like restrictions on the first 2 and last 2 days, except for certain work involving food preparation and carrying. Non-essential work prohibited on the intermediate days
Yom HaShoah	Sun May 1	Thu Apr 19	No restrictions
Yom HaZikaron	Mon May 9	Wed Apr 25	No restrictions
Yom HaAtzmaut	Tue May 10	Thu Apr 26	No restrictions
Lag baOmer	Sun May 22	Thu May 10	No restrictions
Yom Yerushalayim	Wed Jun 1	Sun May 20	No restrictions
Shavuot	Wed Jun 8 - Thu Jun 9	Sun May 27 - Mon May 28	Sabbath-like restrictions, except for certain work involving food preparation and carrying
Shiva Asar B'Tammuz	Tue Jul 19	Sun Jul 8	No restrictions
Tisha B'Av	Tue Aug 9	Sun Jul 29	Limited restrictions on work through mid-day
Rosh Hashanah	Thu Sep 29 - Fri Sep 30	Mon Sep 17 - Tue Sep 18	Sabbath-like restrictions, except for certain work involving food preparation and carrying
Tzom Gedaliah	Sun Oct 2	Wed Sep 19	No restrictions
Yom Kippur	Sat Oct 8	Wed Sep 26	All Sabbath-like work restrictions. In addition, there are special restrictions against eating, washing, annointing, marital relations and wearing leather shoes
Sukkot/Shmini Atzeret	Thu Oct 13 - Fri Oct 21	Mon Oct 1 - Tue Oct 9	Sabbath-like restrictions on the first 2 and last 2 days, except for certain work involving food preparation and carrying. Non-essential work prohibited on the intermediate days
Chanukah	Wed Dec 21 - Wed Dec 28	Sun Dec 9 - Sun Dec 16	Tradition limits work only during the time that the Chanukah candles are lit
Asarah B'Tevet	Thu Jan 5 ('12)	Sun Dec 23	No restrictions

Hava Nagila On Ice

Daily Jewish Life, Blessings and Prayers (To Be Continued)

When one wakes up in the morning, one says Modeh(m.)/Modah(f.)Ani. It's a short prayer of gratitude, thanking Hashem for being alive. During sleep one's soul goes to Shamayim and when one wakes up, the soul is restored. Sleep is considered to be "one-sixteeth of death" (Yerushalmi, Berakhot 12). According to the Shulchan Aruch, "One should strengthen himself like a lion to get up in the morning to serve his Creator."

Hebrew: מודה אני לפניך מלך חי וקים שהחזרת בי נשמתי בחמלה, רבה אמונתך.

Transliteration: Modeh/Modah Ani lefanecha melech chai vekayam shehechazarta bi nishmati behemlah raba emunetecha.

English: I thank you, living and eternal King, for giving me back my soul in mercy, Great is your faithfulness.

Next, one should wash hands to say Al-Netilat Yadayim. Procedure (preference is given to the dominant hand and that's why the non-dominant hand washes the dominant hand first): For right handed people: take a cup to fill it up with water with your right hand, then put it in your left hand, and wash right hand three times, then left hand three times. The water must be up to the rist, and say the bracha/blessing for washing hands. For left handed people: the procedure is done in reverse, just switch hands.  (i'm ambidextrous so I find it's fascinating which hand to use). This is a ritual handwashing, which removes impurity and makes one spiritually clean, and it also serves as a reminder of  the ancient Temple service where the Kohanim/the Priests were required to wash their hands before performing the rituals in the Temple.

Hebrew - "ברוך אתה אדוני אלוהינו מלך העולם אשר קידשנו במצוותיו וציונו על נטילת ידיים"

Transliteration: Baruch atah adonahy elohaynu melekh ha'olam asher kideshahnu b'mitsvotav vetsivanu al netilat yadayim.

English: "Blessed are you, Lord, our God, King of the universe, who sanctifies us with his commandments, and commanded us about washing the hands."

The bracha of Al-Netilat Yadayim is also said before eating bread and once this happens, from the moment of saying the bracha until one gets to eat bread, one does not speak in between. (The bracha for eating bread is Ha-Motzi, I'll go over the blessings for food in more detail in a post about blessings).

After one goes to the bathroom, each time one says the Bracha of Asher Yatzar. The special meaning of this blessing lies in the fact that our body is so complex and it reminds us about how important it is for our body to properly function in order for us to carry our daily activities, and by being aware of this, we will hopefuly learn to appreciate and focus on preserving our health.

בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה יְהֹוָה אֱלֹהֵינוּ מֶלֶךְ הָעוֹלָם אֲשֶׁר יָצַר אֶת

.הָאָדָם בְּחָכְמָה וּבָרָא בוֹ נְקָבִים נְקָבִים חֲלוּלִים חֲלוּלִים

גָּלוּי וְיָדוּעַ לִפְנֵי כִסֵּא כְבוֹדֶךָ שֶׁאִם יִפָּתֵחַ אֶחָד מֵהֶם

אוֹ יִסָּתֵם אֶחָד מֵהֶם אִי אֶפְשַׁר לְהִתְקַיֵּם וְלַעֲמוֹד לְפָנֶיךָ

.אֲפִילוּ שָׁעָה אֶחָת

.בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה יְהֹוָה רוֹפֵא כָל בָּשָׂר וּמַפְלִיא לַעֲשֹוֹת

"Blessed are You, L-rd, our G-d, King of the universe, Who formed man with wisdom and created in him many orifices and cavities. It is revealed and known before Your Throne of Glory that were one of them to be ruptured or blocked, it would be impossible to survive and stand before You (even for a short period of time). Blessed are You, L-rd, Healer of all flesh who does wondrous deeds".

In the morning this can be recited along with the Morning Blessings. Immediately after this, one says Elokai Neshama,

Hebrew: 

אלהי נשמה שנתת בי טהורה היא

אתה בראתה אתה יצרתה אתה נפחתה בי 

ואתה משמרה בקרבי ואתה

אתיד לטלה מימני 

ולהחזירה בי לעתיד לבוא

כל זמן שהנשמה בקרבי מודה אני לפניך

יהוה אלהי ואלהי אבותי

ריבון כל המעשים אדון כל הנשמות

ברוך אתה יהוה המחזיר נשמות לפגרים מתים

Transliteration: Elokai neshama shenatata bi tehora hi, Atah bera'ata, Atah yetzarta, Atah nafachta bi ve atah meshamera bekirbi, ve-ata atid litela mimeni ulehackazira bi le-atid la-vo. Kol zeman she'ha-neshamah be-kirbi, modeh/modah ani lefanecha. Adonai Elohai ve-Elohai avotai, ribon kol ha-ma'asim, Adon kol ha-neshamot. Baruch Ata Adonai, ha-mahazir neshamot lepgarim metim.

Translation: My God, the soul You placed within me is pure. You created it, You formed it, You breathed it into me, and You guard it while it is within me. One day You will take it from me, and restore it to me in the time to come. As long as the soul is within me, I will thank You, HaShem my God and God of my ancestors, Master of all works, Lord of all souls. Blessed are You, HaShem, who restores souls to lifeless bodies.

This prayer is also an expression of gratitude, which is connected to the prayer of Modeh Ani. Through this, we remember that our soul comes from G*d, who is the source of purity. This is related to the fact that:

ז  וַיִּיצֶר יְהוָה אֱלֹהִים אֶת-הָאָדָם, עָפָר מִן-הָאֲדָמָה, וַיִּפַּח בְּאַפָּיו, נִשְׁמַת חַיִּים; וַיְהִי הָאָדָם, לְנֶפֶשׁ חַיָּה. 7 Then the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul.  (Bereshit/Genesis 2:7 from http://www.mechon-mamre.org/)

After this, guys would put on tzit-tzis, tallis, and tefillin (I'm not a guy so I cannot discuss in detail those laws, except in general terms).

Next, there are the Blessings Over the Torah. One says them in the morning and anyhow, one cannot study Torah without saying these Blessings first. In the Siddur/Jewish prayer book, the Torah blessings are followed by certain passages from the Bible, Mishna and Gemara. This helps emphasize how important studying is.

Birkat HaShachar/Morning Blessings: they help focus on not taking the things that we have for granted. One should say 100 blessings a day.

Pesukei DeZimra/Verses of Praise includes: Baruch Sheamar said while standing, Ashrei, Yishtabach

Shema: Monotheism is elegant and practical. The core principle in Judaism is monotheism, the belief in one G*d, an undivided G*d, just One, because G*d is "the one and only". This is reflected in the Shema prayer:

"Shema Yisrael, Adonai Eloheinu, Adonai Echad. Baruch shem kevod malkuto le-olam va'ed. Listen, Israel: the L-rd is our God, the L-rd is One. Blessed be the name of His glorious kingdom for ever and all time.


Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your might. These words that I command you today shall be on your heart. Teach them repeatedly to your children, speaking of them when you sit at home and when you travel on the way, when you lie down and when you rise. Bind them as a sign on your hand, and they shall be an emblem between your eyes. Write them on the doorposts of your house and gates." (Deuteronomy 6) (translation from The Koren Siddur)

One can then daven the Amida for Shacharit.

Minha (in the afternoon): Ashrei, Amida (could include Tachanun also), Aleinu (said while standing)

Ma'ariv (at night, women don't customarily say Ma'ariv)

Bedtime Shema: as the Koren Sacks Siddur indicates, "Just as our first words in the morning should be the words of prayer, so should our last at night"

Some rules to keep in mind:

There are laws on how to make up a missed Amida. If one misses the Amida in the morning, one can daven Amida twice for Mincha. If a girl/woman misses Mincha, there is a question as to whether she can daven Ma'ariv. If she does, she most likely does so keeping in mind she would not be taking the custom of davening Ma'ariv daily, but she does this now to make up for the missed Amida.

Brachos for Food: there is a blessing to say before called Bracha Rishona and a blessing to say after called Bracha Achrona. When one says a blessing over food, one gets permission from Hashem to pertake of the food. Before saying the blessing, the food belongs to Hashem, and eating without saying a blessing it's as if stealing. Each food depending on its ingredients gets a blessing. For food, the blessings follow the format "Baruch Ata Adonai Eloheinu Melech Ha-olam...." followed by what is specific to the food, while when doing a mitzvah, the blessing would include "asher kidishanu be-mitzvotav ve-tzivanu..." followed by the specific blessing according to the mitzvah.

Blessing before eating Bread=Hamotzi (bread made of wheat, rye, oats, spelt, barley)

....המוציא לחם מן הארץ.‏Hebrew

Transliteration:  ha‑motzi lehem min ha‑aretz.

Translation: ....who brings forth bread from the earth.

After eating a meal with bread, one says Birkat Hamazon.

Blessing before eating food that is not bread, made of grain products=Mezonot

....בורא מיני מזונות .‏Hebrew

Transliteration: Barukh ata Adonai Eloheinu Melekh ha‑olam, bo're minei m'zonot.

Translation: "....Who creates varieties of nourishment."

Blessing for fruits=Ha-Eitz

 בורא פרי העץ........‏Hebrew

Transliteration: .........bo'rei p'ri ha‑eitz

Translation: "........Who creates the fruit of the tree."

Blessing for vegetables that grow from the earth Ha-Adama 

 בורא פרי האדמה.......‏Hebrew

Transliteration: "....bo'rei p'ri ha‑adama.

Translation: "....who creates the fruit of the ground."

For other fruits, including when not knowing which blessing to apply specifically, there is a general blessing called  She-Hakol

 שהכל נהיה בדברו......‏Hebrew

Transliteration: .......she‑hakol nih'ye bidvaro.

Translation: " ...through Whose word everything comes into being."

Blessing before drinking wine=Ha-Gafen (Fruit of the Vine)

 ...בורא פרי הגפן......Hebrew 

Transliteration: .....bo're p'ri ha‑gafen

Translation: "....Who creates the fruit of the vine."

After the meal, when not saying Bircat Ha-Mazon, one says either

Al Hamichya: for food made from grains,  wine or juice, fruit specific to Israel such as grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, dates.

or

Borei Nefashot: for meat, fish, dairy products, vegetables, beverages, fruit other than grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives or dates

When consuming for the first time in a season a fruit one (or when putting on a new garment) one says the Bracha She-HeHiyanu:

Hebrew: שהחינו וקימנו והגענו לזמן הזה

Transliteration: .....she‑hehiyanu vekiy-manu vehigianu la‑zman ha‑ze.

Translation: "......Who has kept us alive, sustained us, and enabled us to reach this season."

OTHER BRACHOS

On immersing in the mikva (the ritual bath): 

Transliteration: ....al ha‑tevila.

Translation: "....commanded us concerning immersion."

 

On immersing ustensils in a Mikvah to make them kosher one says:

Transliteration: "al-tevliat keilim"

Translation: "concerning immersion of utensils."

On dwelling in the Sukkah one says:

 לישב בסכה.‏Hebrew

Transliteration: leishev ba sukka.

Translation: ".... to dwell in the sukkah."

Blessing on Lighting Candles--for Shabbat and Yom Tov

For Shabbat Candles (to be lit 18 minutes before sunset on Friday):

Hebrew: להדליק נר של שבת.

Transliteration: l'hadlik ner shel Shabbat.

Translation: " ...to light the Shabbat candles."

Hanukkah Candles

בר להדליק נר של חנוכה.‏Hebrew

Transliteration: ....l'hadlik ner shel hanuka.

Translation: "to kindle the Hanukkah lights.

Candle lighting for Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur

 להדליק נר של יום טוב.‏Hebrew

Transliteration: l'hadlik ner shel yom tov.

Translation: "....to light the holiday candles.

For Affixing a Mezuzah (which contains the verses of the Shema, there is a special procedure to do so, and various customs. Ashkenazim would put the mezuzah inclined at 45 degrees angle, while Sephardim may affix it vertically. A mezuzah is put on every door on a Jewish home, except the bathroom. It's the custom to kiss the mezuzah before going in and out):

 לקבוע מזוזה.‏...Hebrew

Transliteration: .....likbo'a m'zuza.

Translation: ".....to affix the mezuzah." 

Havdalah Ceremony (at the Conclusion of Shabbat, Shabbat last 25 hours): it is performed on Saturday night, after sunset, with the following blessings:

One says a bracha over the kiddush cup which is filled with wine.

 בורא פרי הגפן.‏....Hebrew

Transliteration: .....bo're p'ri hagafen

Translation: "......Who creates the fruit of the vine

Then the besamim box is passed around to smell the spices which give some comfort to the soul as Shabbat departs, the bracha for the spices being

בורא מיני בשמים.‏...Hebrew

Transliteration:.... bo're minei b'samim. 

Translation: ".....Who creates varieties of spices."

A braided candle is then lit, with the bracha on it being:

בורא מאורי האש.....Hebrew
Transliteration: .... bo-re m-orei ha‑esh 

Translation: Who creates the lights of the fire

One must benefit from this light by looking at its reflection in the fingernails, the final bracha being
 

Transliteration: Baruch Ata Adonai Eloheinu melekh ha‑olam, ha‑mavdil bein kodesh le-hol, bein or le-hoshekh, bein Yisrael la‑amim, bein yom ha‑shevi-i le-sheshet yemei ha‑ma-a'0e. Barukh ata Adonai, ha‑mavdil bein kodesh lehol

Translation:  Blessed are You, L*rd Our King of the universe, Who distinguishes between the sacred and the secular, between light and dark, between Israel and the nations, between the seventh day and the six days of labor. Blessed are You, L-rd, Who distinguishes between the sacred and the secular.

Nina Cassian Self-Portrait

from Vol. 19 No. 1

translated by William Jay Smith

I was given at birth this odd triangular
face, the sugared cone that you see now,
the figurehead jutting from some pirate prow,
framed by trailing strands of moonlight hair.

Disjointed shape I’m destined to carry around
and thrust out steadily through endless days,
wounding the retinas of those who gaze
on the twisted shadow I cast upon the ground.

Disowned by the family from which I came,
who am I? Earth conspires to turn me back,
the white race and the yellow, the redskin and the black,
till even to the species I lay little claim.

And only when—a self-inflicted woman—
I cry out; only when I face the cold;
and only when by time I’m stained and soiled
do they find me beautiful: and call me human.

http://www.aprweb.org/poem/selfportrait

Poems I Published in the Jewish Studies Journal

Remember

It’s 1943. Nazi beasts roaming the Earth,
Jewish men, women and children
Packed up in the cattle wagons:
No love, no care, no kindness.
Can’t anyone else see? They’re treated worse than animals:
No basic necessities allowed, no food, no water.
Nazi beasts guard the trains, ready to shoot
Anyone who would approach to give
Maybe a little bit of water, maybe a little bit of food.
Alas! Nazi beasts are roaming the Earth
Like vampires, lurking around, searching for Jewish blood
The whole world pretends to be blind, deaf, and silent
While the Jewish nation is sent to the newly built chambers,
And so the Nazi beasts continue to scream
Their nightmares in your ears:
Infinite cruelty, immeasurable justice
The loudest cry you give
And all they hear is silence;
How much pain should a Jewish heart endure?
Don’t let the sun fool you,
It may be daylight outside,
But inside it’s forever dark.
With Nazi beasts roaming the Earth
A million cold shivers up and down your spine
They hurt, they kill, so happy with no hesitation
And so they built a mountain of bodies
For them, every Jew is just a meaningless, invisible number,
In the terrible flames and smoke they send
All the ones you know, all the ones you love:
Remember these times,
Remember their number,
Never forget
Six million Jews!
And carry their memory
No matter where and when you go
And so they will live eternally
Today, tomorrow, and forever after
Inside your Jewish  heart,
Inside your Jewish soul.   



There's a Bridge Somewhere
There's a bridge somewhere
Connecting the sea and the sky
Some never heard about it
Others have drifted away
Like seconds in time
As the summer sun shines into the world
The water of the seas echoes your name
There's freedom for everyone to find
There's happiness and love,
If you would lift up your heart
And sing with the waves along,
Embracing the simple vision
That behind the horizons,
There's at least hope.
There's a bridge somewhere
Connecting the earth and the sky
Some never heard about it
Others have drifted away
Like seconds in time;
And then, you might just wonder
If through rain and thunder
The world appears upside down,
How many will remember
To stop walking on the mistaken side?
If happiness were just one step away
Wouldn't you hold on for
A second, a minute, and an hour more?
Don't let the tears
Come and shatter your heart
As you close your eyes to dream
The sea will whisper in your ears:
Have you counted today
All the small grains
That caress your feet
When you walk on the sand?
Do you know
How all the seconds of the past
Are building the future
In the everlasting life?
Some things will come
To you in time;
There's a bridge somewhere
Connecting the sea and the sky
And as you turn away from light,
Don't forget!
Embrace with you
The small things of the world
And remember to sing along:
There's a bridge somewhere
Connecting the sea and the sky
Some never heard about it
Others have drifted away
Like seconds in time.




The Kotel Song
 
In a golden memory
I bow with my blue life in front of you,
The white, sturdy, ancient Wall,
And the wind blows the sorrow of my tears
Towards you, just before they fall;
I dare not look, nor move, nor say a word—
Crestfallen thoughts sprint along.
In my green eyes, the everlasting leaves
Of the Yerushalayim trees
Embrace all the unforgotten memories:
A long, long time ago, the wind of the dessert
Imprisoned my eyes in forlorn ice
While my soul kept flying towards you,
Always looking for the dream they haven't seen.
Bringing with it all its fears,
Quickly comes again the wind
But my tears stand tranquil in the air;
As time carries with us an invisible name
In the mirror of one sea,
There's vivacity, and no bereavement!
The genuine icon of the future?
The power of antonymic words
In a pantomimic world.




Shalom
 
I have to write in my blue book
Like I did it yesterday,
Like I've done it since I was born.
Alas! My pen drips its ink on the floor
While the red rose forgets in the wind
Its petals of remorse.
I have to turn the page
And scribble about another moment;
Hold still, time! My beautiful white rose,
They robbed you. Silence,
No one will fight with you!
It is just the dove's murmur by my side.
I am descending from my dais
After reading and writing.
In my place, they left a shattered clock!
Wings and vapors hold me still;
Maybe time will disappear: 
Peace and calm and no one. 

To Rachel

Blue sea, orange sun,
Waves passing by
Time, let them go
With a sigh:
No need to cry!

Green grass in a yellow world
Here it comes again:
The twisted road,
In life's cradle, hope is close,
No better time!

White clouds, purple words
Rainbows shining in the sand
The sun will tell you more
Once the door in the clouds
Will open up the sky

Blue, orange, green
Yellow, white, purple,
just a bit, but there is more,
As in spring, life leaps forth
You be strong, don't let it go!

(Note: this poem was written and published in the Jewish Studies Journal of my college)

Holocaust Remembrance

In the face of Hitler’s plan to annihilate the Jews, the Jewish community organized itself in the ghettos so as to resist spiritually, emotionally, and physically to the Nazi persecutions and murder plans. The different forms of resistance of the Jewish community living in the ghetto can be classified under the terms “Official Community”, “The Alternative Community”, and the “Counter Community” (History of the Holocaust College Course).

Within the Official community falls the Judenrat and the Jewish police(Unarmed Resistance and Other Reponses, p.234-246). The Judenrat was established in 1939-1940 before the systematic killings began and continued afterwards as an institution that was confronted with many challenges. The Jewish Police established by the Nazi orders was an alien institution to the Jewish community living in the Diaspora. As the Official Community is challenged, the Alternative Community forms to cater to the needs of the Jewish community through underground activities. Perspectives of the counter community can be encountered in the desire to resist the implementation of the Nazi policies and to take a stand against them not only at the community level, but also at the individual level. During the Holocaust, some Jews hoped to escape the life of the ghetto by joining with the Partisans and gathering strength for an armed response against the Nazis, while supporters of Zionism would’ve preferred immigrating to the Land of Israel.

The Official Community was compromised of the Judenrat, the official council created by the Nazis in Poland and the territories of Soviet Union to carry out their orders (History of the Holocaust College Course). As the American historian Lucy Dawidowicz points out, there were usually 12 members forming the Judenrat or 24 members in the case of larger communities. It was believed that the Judenrat would work as a Kehillah (community), an intermediate body that will be able to negotiate matters with the Nazis for the Jews.

The Jews who first agreed to serve for the Judenrat considered this to be as a result of a communal sense of responsibility for their brethren. The Judenrat members were from the middle class and some served as communal leaders before the establishment of the Judenrat. As a counter community, Zionists and younger Jews preferred to be members of the Bund (the Jewish Socialist Party) and refused to be part of the Judenrat. Nazis forbade women from serving in the Judenrat. As such, there were political tensions between the members of the Judenrat and those who chose not to serve.

The Germans carried out their orders by terrorizing the Jewish community. The members of the Judenrat would be either shot immediately or sent to labor camps if they did not carry out the Nazi orders, so the future members of the Judenrat learned they were to obey without protest so as not to lose their lives. The Judenrat carried out functions normally associated with the municipality. There was the Jewish police, firefighters, public health services, and sanitation. Dawidowicz remarks that the members of the Judenrat had a dual role. Though they were to carry the Nazi orders, they also regarded themselves as comforters of the Jews since they were in charge of food distribution and medical services.


The income of the Judenrat came from the collection of the fees that Jews were to pay to be exempted from forced labor (History of the Holocaust). There were institutions such as a public kitchen, hospitals, clinics, disinfectant stations, and communal shelters for the homeless. The second task of the Judenrat was to supply forced laborers to the Germans for which they set up a labor registry for both men and women. The labor draft consisted of 20 hours of work daily, with no food. The Judenrat had to provide 10,000 Jewish laborers daily. Due to the harsh conditions of the forced labor, the Judenrat began to cease Jews on the street with the help of the Jewish police. The Judenrat was perceived as increasingly coercive. Its goal was to prevent the Germans from entering the ghetto. If the Jews evaded the labor duty, they were transgressing the ghetto rules and putting in jeopardy the existence of the ghetto.

The Judenrat hoped to ensure Jewish survival by having Jews produce what the Nazis needed (Unarmed Resistance and Other Reponses, p.234).  As head of the Judenrat, Chaim Rumkovski applied the idea of ghetto industry in the Lodz ghetto in Poland (Jewish Resistance-Myth Or Reality, p. 269-273). This was the second largest ghetto after the Warsaw ghetto, and contained 117 factories were Jews worked. Rumkovski wanted to show that Jews were invaluable to the Germans. This Strategy was also employed in the ghettos of Vilna and Bialystok (Documents of the Holocaust#198, p. 231).

In exchange, the Jewish police was established by the Judenrat to carry the orders of the Germans as the Germans indicated there should be a police force in the ghetto (History of the Holocaust College Course). Thus, the Jewish police also served this incompatible role of protecting the order in the ghetto while enforcing the German orders. Those who enrolled in the Jewish police force were hoping to gain benefits such as better distribution of ratios and avoiding deportations, which eventually turned to be untrue.  Many Jewish policemen were converts to Catholicism. One such example is Joseph Szernvski, the chief of the Jewish Police who was a Polish Jewish convert to Catholicism (History of the Holocaust). In terms of religious life, the Jews could not attend the synagogue but Jews who were Catholics were allowed to attend churches within the confines of the ghetto.


The Great Deportations began in Summer of 1942 and as such, 8,000 Jews were taken everyday to Treblinka and gassed (History of the Holocaust College Course). The Jewish policemen stood by the gates of the ghetto to ensure that Jews returned from work without food or weapons.  The Jewish police was also checked by the Polish police. They would also examine work papers to make sure same person returned. The Jewish policemen have come to be identified as the enemies of the ghetto.

After 1942, there are clashes between the Judenrat and the Jewish police. The Jewish police was established simultaneously with the ghetto. Of all the services for which the Judenrat was in charge, the police force was the most foreign institution to the Jewish community as it is a new institution in the Diaspora. The Jewish police was hard to control and it was evolving as an independent force.

In Warsaw, the chief of the Judenrat commits suicide and the Jewish police took over the ultimate authority (History of the Holocaust College Course). Towards 1942-1943, the Gestapo gave orders directly to the Jewish police instead of the Judenrat. There is a deterioration of the relation between the Jewish police and the community because the police are in charge of seizing people and sending them away.

The Jewish police would stand by the entrance of the ghetto to check for smuggling activities as due to the harsh conditions of the ghetto, people would bring potatoes, bread, or other food items, since food supplies were so scarce in the ghetto and starvation prevailed (History of the Holocaust College Course).  Before the onset of deportations, the Judenrat believed that Germany would soon be defeated and that the Germans were only interested in exploiting the Jews so it was only a matter of time before this would stop. Therefore, resistance would be counterproductive.

At the initial stages of for the formation of the Judenrat, the members of the Judenrat who did not want to follow orders were killed or shot.  In order to survive, the leaders of the Judenrat believed they have to show to the Germans that Jews are useful. Once such example is the Lodzc ghetto (Jewish Resistance-Myth Or Reality, p. 269-273). There were 70,000 people here in 1944. Rumkovski was the leader of the Judenrat, and he saved the 70,000 Jews there. The ghettoes without production did not survive. Though some Jews went to join the Partisans, some of the Partisans refused to accept the Jews and so they would either kill the Jews or refuse to give them weapons to fight.

As mentioned by Dawidovicz, the Alternative Community takes shape as the Official community is challenged by the German orders (History of the Holocaust College Course). The alternative community serves the goal of protecting the community in order to give some meaning to the life in the ghetto. As such, they created welfare organizations and social, cultural, and religious underground activities that the Germans would not allow otherwise to take place. Resistance comes to include writing, poetry, schools, theaters, plays, orchestras, and welfare activities performed on a voluntary basis. One example of how this took place is the TOZ institution—the Society for the Preservation of Health in Poland. In the ghettos, they established clinics, orphanages, and soup kitchens. Throughout Poland, there were about 412 organizations to provide supplies and assistance, while in Warsaw, there were 145 soup kitchens and 45 only for children which served thousands of meals, distributing clothing and medicine through smuggling activities. 

Religious life in the ghetto was officially nonexistent, as the Nazis did not recognize  the Jews as a religious group (History of the Holocaust College Course). For example, in the Warsaw ghetto, coverts to Catholicism were allowed to go to Churches, while Jews were not allowed to go to synagogue. Private and public worship, kosher slaughtering, and religious education were outlawed. However, there were hundreds of secret Talmudic academies, secret places for prayer in the cellars, attics, or bathrooms. In the city of Cracow, the services were held secretly with the help of the Jewish police who also prayed. In 1939, all Jewish schools were closed down.

Though Jewish schools were not allowed, underground schools were established. As such, there were Zionist schools teaching in Hebrew and leftists or socialist schools teaching in Yiddish. In the Locz ghetto, there were 10,000 Jewish children in 45 Jewish schools. The ghetto schools represent for many a surrogate family as children without families get a sense of emotional security and care.  In October 1942, Rudoskevsky (killed in early 1943) wrote in his diary that attending a play in the ghetto constituted a form of spiritual resistance. In the Warsaw ghetto there were five theaters, three performing in Polish, and two in Yiddish. In some places, Jews considered that “A graveyard is no place for entertainment’ (History of the Holocaust). In Warsaw, the Jews were not allowed to have libraries. However, there were underground libraries cared for by courier librarians.

When assessing the attempts towards resistance of the Jewish population in the ghetto, it is important to remember that the Nazis had the goal to carry out their policies in secret, so that the Jews would not receive any potential aid from external sources that might be sympathetic to the suffering of the Jews. Moreover, the ghettos were closed down to prevent communication with the outside world. Many refused to believe such atrocities against the Jews could take place while those who were familiar with what was happening and had the power to prevent this did not want to interfere remaining indifferent. Yet, in spite of the severe circumstances in the ghetto, the response of the Jewish community to remain united and organize itself underground is admirable. 

The actions of the perpetrators against the Jews during the Holocaust involved acts of violence, cruelty, and mass murder of innocent civilian men, women, and children (History of the Holocaust). Though some of the actions of mass murder were carried out by special Nazi forces trained to kill without hesitation, such as the Einsatzgruppen, there were numerous other incidents in which ordinary people participated in these atrocities to support the mass killings of Jewish civilians, whether because they volunteered to participate in the mass murder, chose to follow the orders instead of refusing even when there was no penalty otherwise, or because they were indifferent to what was happening to the Jews. Historians who assess the actions of the perpetrators point out that given the situation in Germany during this time period, Germany did not act alone and many countries did not oppose Germany, while local people contributed either by volunteering to participate in the killings or by demonstrating apathy to the plight of the Jews (Documents on the Holocaust #189-190, p. 230).

One of the key factors that contributed to implementing these actions of mass murder was the motivations of those who participated in the killings (History of the Holocaust). Though most Germans did not display a violent inclination, most Germans were indifferent to the plight of the Jews. The work of three historians is crucial in understanding this question: Hilber, Browning, and Friedlander (History of the Holocaust). These historians emphasize that the Holocaust couldn’t have happened without the help of many Germans. Not all people were adhering to the Nazi ideology. Yet, local people helped locate and identify Jews and even kill them without protesting. The historian Godhagen explored the role of Ordinary Germans, Browning explored the role of Ordinary men, and Omer Barton explored the role of Ordinary Nazis. Goldhagen point out that Germans were intrinsically antisemitic.

Moreover, ordinary Germans become executioners based on their own free will. Those who participated in the shootings were members of the SS or Members of the Hitler Youth, who were trained to kill (Documents of the Holocaust#189, p. 230). Browning emphasizes the role of peer pressure, the desire to attain a career, and adherence to authority as factors that contributed to transforming these individuals into killers within the context of World War II. At the same time, there were also ordinary men whose actions were not influenced by propaganda and anti-Jewish legislation.  Browning  studied the Police Batallion 101, where there were reservists, ordinary people who were called to the front to maintain the order and they were asked to participate in the shootings. On average they were of 45 years of age, so they were familiar with the situation in Germany before the establishment of the Third Reich.

Browning examines the testimonials given to the court and very few men were enthusiastic Nazis or exposed to Nazi propaganda. Omer Barton’s research stresses these were ideological people (German Killers, p.153-179). He points out it was tolerated to abstain from shooting but not from protesting (German Killers, p.178). There were no consequences for those who refused to participate in the killings.

At the Nuremberg trials, the dominant excuse was that they were only following orders (History of the Holocaust). Phillip Zimbardo (1971) conducted a controversial experiment at Standford University where he showed a shocking conclusion that when 70 undergraduate students were asked to play the role of prisoner and prisoner guards, they obeyed orders without giving much thought. Browning points out that the Germans behaved in a very specific way when they were told to kill Jews. Since German Jews were much more familiar to them, it was easier to kill Jews from other regions of Eastern Europe. He points out that people got accustomed to carry the orders and be exposed to violence.

In charge of the mass murder, Himmler gave the Posen Speech in 1945 where he announced that four million Jews had been exterminated, without conveying any pity. Himmler as head of the SS groups was speaking in front of the members of the Einzatzgruppen when he referred to the mass shootings of the Jews. He emphasized that the matter must state private.

At the Wannsee Conference that took place in January 1942, Heydrich is appointed as the chief executor of the final solution and mass murder is to be institutionalized throughout Europe (History of the Holocaust). This murder policy was directed at killing every Jew from Ireland to the Mediterranean. The plan was to exterminate 11,000,000 Jews. In January 20, 1942, the Germans were not sure which methods to use to carry the mass murder as the mass shootings were too slow. In Western Europe it was not possible to shoot Jews in mass graves. By December 1941, they killed through mass shooting about 600,000 people. The Operation Reinhard that takes place in October 1941 was directed at constructing extermination centers in Belz, Chelmno, and Sobibor to exterminate Polish Jews as mass shootings were not considered efficient enough. At the Protocols of the Wannsee Conference, the Nazis issued a death sentence for all Jews, making the mass murder a global policy. With the operation Reinhard, the Nazis will exterminate all the Jews living in the General Governmemt from October-November 1941 for Polish Jews.  There were six extermination centers in Poland at Treblinka, Majdanek, Sobibor, Birkenau, Belzec, and Chelmno. More than two million people are killed in these extermination centers.

David Engel, one of the most prominent historians of the Holocaust, points out that Jews were instructed to gather for “resettlement in the East”, but they were not told this meant being deported to a killing center (History of the Holocaust). The Germans sealed off the exits of the ghettoes.

At this time, the areas that were not under Nazis were England, Iceland, and Soviet Union (History of the Holocaust). German forces were not as powerful in Western Europe. After the failure of the blitzkrieg, Hitler required a greater production of weapons. They had brought foreign workmen from races almost Aryan such as the French and Dutch and some countries in Eastern Europe. It is evident that without the extensive collaboration of the indigenous forces, the Germans would have been unable to carry this plan. In Russian, many Ukrainians and Lithuanians helped them (Documents of the Holocaust #188-190, p.229-220).

The killing of 1.6 million Jews in the Soviet Russia couldn’t have been carried out without the collaboration of Ukrainians and Lithuanians (The Jewish Community in the Soviet Annexed Territories on the Eve of the Holocaust, p.191-197). In 1941, Ukraine and the Baltic countries were under the control of Soviet Russia. As such, they welcomed the Germans enthusiastically. In Eastern Europe, the Poles also welcomed the Nazis as the better of the two evils. Jews preferred the Soviets as opposed to the Germans. Here, the Einzatzgruppen requested for volunteers to be part of their SS group (Documents of the Holocaust #189-190, p.230). In Galicia, Ukraine, when the Nazis issued the call for arms, more than 100,000 volunteers responded out of which 30,000 will be employed.

In Western Europe, the deportations took place beginning in the summer of 1942 (History of the Holocaust). In the early stages, it was easy for the Nazis to rely on the help of the local authorities. For example, the French and the Dutch police help them round up the Jews, held them in transit camps, and then sent the convoy to the East.

The presence of local police appeared like a sign of reassurance for the Jews who did not suspect the tragic outcome. Collaboration became easier as the local police grew accustomed with the presence of the Nazi forces in their midst. In the beginning of these deportations, the Germans wanted foreign Jews, which made it easier for the French authorities to get rid of the Eastern European Jews since they were not as acculturated as the French Jews. The Jews were told they would be sent to the labor camps in the East. Most policemen did not know, but with time they become aware. In France, Jews were deported from 16 years of age and above. Under the false pretense of having the Jews be “reunited” with their families in the labor camps, the Jews were exterminated. The ease with which the local authorities was in acquiescence with the Nazi measures indicates how popular antisemitism was in Europe.

The case of the Jewish community in Denmark shows how people behaved totally different than the Nazi Germans and the Western powers who agreed to the Nazi measures (History of the Holocaust). In the summer of 1943, the people on the street helped transfer the Jews by boats to Sweden. The community of Jews living in Denmark was a small community of only 5,000 Jews, and they were saved with the help of the local people. Being very close to Denmark and neutral, Sweden was willing to accept the Jews. On the other hand, Switzerland was also neutral but it did not accept the Jews.

In Germany, there was a marked absence of domestic resistance to Hitler’s policies (History of the Holocaust). One noteworthy case is which there was resistance was the White Rose, group led by two young Germans Franz and Sophie Scholl. They publically voiced their disappointment to the antisemitic policies for which they were executed in 1943. There is also an unsuccessful bomb plot against Hitler in July 1944. Overall, there were no complaints about the extermination polices issued by Hitler.  Moreover, in the post war period, the Germans protected the Nazis who fled back to Germany as they had benefited from the Nazi regime.

Towards the end of the war, when the Nazis were losing the war and would’ve needed all the help they could’ve gotten to change the situation, they continued the systematic murder of the Jews not as a rational means to help win the war, but because they preferred more to exterminate the Jews. In order to hide the atrocities that occurred, the gas chambers were dismantled in November 1944 by the Nazis and the Jews are evacuated (History of the Holocaust). Mass murder of the Jews was supposed to be a secret affair as the Germans feared retribution for their war crimes and crimes against humanity.

From the facts delineated, it can be observed that the perpetrators came from different backgrounds. There were both so called “ordinary men” or “ordinary Germans”, and though some possessed extensive military training, others had no military training, but yet, who upon engaging in the mass murders against the Jews showed they could be easily transformed into criminals.

The case of the volunteers in the mass shootings in Ukraine demonstrates that those who volunteered to take part in the killings were not obligated to do so, but did so at their own free will in order to help the Nazis exterminate the Jews. This case is exemplary for the fact that antisemitism rooted in the hatred for the Jewish people was the one underlying factor that characterized those who took part in the mass murders. The criminal behavior is mechanic, showing no pity or remorse. Though the Allied Powers may have achieved victory over the Nazis, this was a long and challenging process that allowed for 6 million Jews to be murdered in the hands of the Nazis and their supporters.

Book Report: Primo Levi—If This is a Man (Survival at Auschwitz)

“If this is a Man” represents Primo Levi’s vivid and moving memoir as a Holocaust survivor. The memoir is also known under the title “Survival in Auschwitz”, while the original title in Italian is “Se questo è un uomo”. In his memoir, Levi delineates the events that lead to his capture in December 1943, his deportation from Italy, the course of the events taking place at Auschwitz, and the liberation of the camp by the Red Army troops in January 1945. Given the atrocity of the events that occurred during this time period, the memoir provides the reader with a historical account, an opportunity to remember those who perished at the hands of the Nazis, and to acknowledge the hardships and struggles of those who survived.

As such, Levi begins his memoir by noting he was captured by the Fascist Militia on December 13, 1943, when he was 24 years old. He had lived up to this point a life of segregation as a result of the racial laws dating from the past previous four years, which stirred in him a sense of rebellion against injustice. He hid in the mountains, joining a partisan band that was to be affiliated with the resistance movement called “Justice and Liberty”.

When Levi was captured by the Fascist Militia, he declared himself as an “Italian citizen of Jewish race” as he considered it to be a preferable alternative to declaring his political activity since that would’ve certainly meant torture and death. He did not know at that time that acknowledging being Jewish was actually worse, and so he was sent to Fossoli, near Modena (p. 4), which was a “vast detention camp, originally meant for English and American prisoners-of-war, [and which] collected all the numerous categories of people not approved of by the new-born Fascist Republic.”

He arrived here in January 1944, where he encountered entire Jewish families captured by the Nazis here to be deported to labor camps. They knew this was a death sentence from the Polish and Croat refugees (p.11). Such a condemnation seemed anachronistic since they had not committed any crimes, and they were not even allowed to prepare for this departure like people who are condemned to death and who are given the chance to make certain preparations. In this tragic atmosphere before deportation, the mothers prepare their children, washing their clothes, and providing them with nourishment.  The tone of the memoir is tragic as people are mourning their own deaths. Levi notes that this is an ancient grief, reminiscent of the national tragedy of the Jews as a people living in exile.  Once they arrived at the trains that were to taken them to Poland, the SS men packed 650 in 12 wagons. Levi notes that these are the “trains of no return”—a term that is reminiscent of the Israeli singer Ofra Haza’s song “Trains of No Return” .  Levi remarks that they were packed like “cheap merchandise…for a journey towards nothingness” (p.14).  While in the trains, they learn they will leave Italy as to be deported to Auschwitz, but they were not aware of the significance of the name at this point. He remarks that only four out of the 45 people in his wagon survived. 


Furthermore, they were subjected to extreme conditions, there was no water or food, and the trains were guarded so that people would not approach the trains to give them anything At times during the journey, people would light candles in the train.


Before reaching the final destination in Poland, the trains passed through Austria and Czech Republic. The families said farewell to one another because they knew that the outcome of this journey was dismal and fatal. When they arrived in Auschwitz, they were immediately selected, by age, health, and gender. For the newly arrived, the Germans who were making the decision of who will live and who will die seemed like “simple police agents”. Mothers who wanted to stay with the children were sent with the children to the gas chambers. The SS Men were selecting the men from the group as they were interested in using them for forced labor. Soon after the groups were separated, the group of women, children, and the elderly disappeared. Out of this transport, there were only 96 men and 26 women who were sent to work, while more than 500 were sent to the gas chambers upon arrival. The name of the camp was Monovitz-Buna and Birkenau. The newly arrived prisoners saw the almost surreal appearance of two groups who walked in rows of trees—these were the prisoners who were already in the camp. Furthermore, Levi remarks that they realized that they themselves were to undergo such metamorphosis (p.18). 

In Chapter 2—On the Bottom, Levi arrives at the entrance of Auschwitz where he sees the sign “Arbeit Macht Frei”. The prisoners were still not given water to drink even though it had been four days already. The atmosphere is described as “hell”, “it is like being already dead” (p.20). An SS man orders them to disrobe, and while they take off their shoes and clothes, all their possessions are taken away. They are surprised when they are told to pay attention so that no one else would steal their shoes. With this remark, they are faced with an introduction to the conditions of the camp. Levi sees all the other people naked, and he soon learns in the camp, they have to obey every command without deliberation. The SS Man overseeing this process asks for someone to translate his orders from German to Italian. As subsequently depicted in the memoir, the prisoners came from diverse places all over Europe where German is not the language they spoke. Then, the “metamorphosis” continues and they get “shaved and sheared” (p.23). Levi believes that they will all eventually be killed.

Their translator is a German Jew, by the name of Flesch. Flesch is reluctant to translate their questions into German, as he is already acquainted with the conditions in the camp. This emphasizes how in the camp it would be useless to ask questions. Flesch’s appearance denotes to have been in the camp for a longer time, and his suffering earns the respect of those around him since he was able to withstand the harsh conditions of the camp. The overall atmosphere is dismal and surreal. They are now “at Monovitz, near Auschwitz, in Upper Silesia” (p.24). The concentration camp holds 10,000 prisoners which work at a factory to make rubber. They are obligated to stand naked waiting for a shower and the disinfection. They are told they will not be returned their own clothes, and so they receive instead “unrecognizable rangs…and a pair of broken-down booths with wooden soles” (p.25). The clothes are the same for everyone, and soon they are all shaved. From now on, they will be known as “Haftling”, carrying a number tattooed on the left arm. This procedure takes the identity and individuality away, as Levi remarks that “There is nowhere to look in a mirror, but our appearance stands in front of us, reflected in a hundred livid faces, in a hundred miserable and sordid puppets”(p.25). This also constitutes the process of “metamorphosis”, “the demolition of a man” (p.26) as they now look like the prisoners they had seen before, like “phantoms” (p.25).

Levi meditates on the process that is taking place providing a comparison between the life in the camp and the life of free men. The little common possessions and basic necessities that ordinary men, even beggars have, may be undermined or disregarded in value, yet here, in the camp, their acquisition and ownership calls for great efforts, such as having to abstain from eating own daily ration of bread so as to be able to exchange it for other basic necessities. Thus, Levi notes that life in the camp is a process that is targeted at dehumanizing, where the right to live is judged at best upon “utility”. This resonates with the inscription on the gate at Auschwitz, “Work will set you free”. Yet, even this subhuman principle does not represent a rule that is always respected, as many prisoners fall victim to the whims and caprices of the SS Men. 

Moreover, the number the prisoner carry on the arm is significant for calculating life expectancies. A higher number indicates the prisoners newly arrived, while a lower number indicates prisoners who have been in the camp for a while, which are not as many, as people are not able to withstand the hunger, forced labor, and dejected conditions of the camp for a longer time—on average only for about three months.  As a rule, they learn that everything they have can be stolen, so they have to guard what they have at all times, and everything can be put to some kind of use. Moreover, there are countless meaningless prohibitions in the camp, such as they are mandated to behave in a ritualistic and senseless way—they must get up early to go to work, make their bed and clean their shoes in a certain way, march to and from work with the band playing, in sum “go out and come in, work, sleep and eat; fall ill, get better or die” (p.37).

In Chapter 3-Initiation, Levi describes his encounter with another prisoner, Diena, upon being sent to Block 30. He will sleep in the same bunk with Diena.  As opposed to the chapters that follow where Levi gains more experience in the camp, this encounter shows how Levi is still at the beginning, unaware of what to expect, as here he still preserves the social framework one would apply when orienting himself in the real world, such as asking questions to receive directions and information. He would like to know when food is distributed, and what utensils he can make use of to eat. Yet, as he will soon find out, in the lager, a prisoner cannot ask questions and will not be given answers, he will not receive proper nourishment or proper accommodations for resting, and instead he will be subjugated to forced labor and restrictions upon restrictions. The doctrine of the lager is that “man is bound to pursue his own ends by all possible means, while he who errs but once pays dearly” (p.4).

In terms of the languages spoken in the camp, Levi makes a Biblical allusion to the Tower of Babel. There are many languages spoken in the camp, and in order to survive, one must be able to understand the meaning of shouts and orders never heard before. The camp forces the prisoner to embrace a different mentality, there is the constant fight to survive in spite of the oppressing factors and meager resources of survival. There is a psychological struggle to preserve one’s identity and mores. For example, washing in the filthy basins does not represent anymore so much a method of preserving hygiene, but rather it becomes a psychological struggle to preserve one’s strength and optimism. Another prisoner Levi meets is Steinlauff, who was a Sergeant in the Austro-Hungarian Army, and was decorated with the Iron Cross (p.43). Steinlauff is a symbol of this struggle against the demoralizing nature of the camp through his desire to wash, and he also instructs Levi to do so. Washing helps preserves the instinct to be clean, and so it maintains the desire to survive the humiliating and hostile conditions in the camp.

In Chapter 4-Ka Be, Levi describes how the days start to lose meaning as it is hard to count them since there is the same dull routine everyday and exhausting labor. It is not only the days that are devoid of meaning, but the living conditions of the camp as well which impact the mentality of the prisoners. They are living in a surreal environment, and the nature of the social interactions changes, as seen through the description of the interactions with other prisoners in the camp.  From Null Aschtzeh’s description, it is revealed that only the last three digits of his number, Zero Eighteen, and not his name are used to identify him. Others, including himself don’t use his name anymore because the idea of a name implies a certain human value, identity, and individuality, and they allude to the fact that once he had a different life outside the concentration camp. Yet, in the camp, there is an ongoing process through which these values are attacked. Null Aschtzeh is very young and he gives the impression that he is empty. Since he does not struggle to survive too hard but rather shows a “total indifference” (p.46), he is not considered to be a good companion.

While working with Levi, trying to carry a load, Null Aschtzeh trips and lets go of the load, and Levi wounds his foot. He goes to the infirmary, known as Krankenbau or Ka-Be for short. The rules at the infirmary are that those who are admitted are not obligated to do forced labor; however, those who do not get better are selected and sent to the gas chambers. Though referred only indirectly through allusions from the other prisoners in the camp, Levi learns about selections from what will happen to another patient at Ka Be. Here, Levi encounters Schmulek, an elderly Polish Jew, albino, who is a smith. The SS men come to inspect the patients and when they arrived at Schmulek, they draw a cross over his number—the mark for selection. The second day, Schmulek is taken away with another group that will be gassed. In the final scene before being murdered, Schmulek gives his spoon and knife to the narrator and then he leaves to the gas chambers in silence.  After twenty days at Ka-Be, Levi is discharged (Chapter 5, Our Nights) and he is sent to a different block where he would not expect to have any acquaintances. However, he encounters Alberto, a younger friend of 22 years old, who is very intelligent and did not forget to be kind to others.  One of his bed companions is Resnyk (Chapter 6, The Work), a thirty year old Polish Jew who was a courteous and kind companion, and who was skilled at quickly making the bed in the morning. Levi could speak to him in French.

Through the struggles in the camp (Chapter 7—A Good Day), Levi notes that men live with the conviction that life has a purpose. Moreover, one of the things that affects the life of the prisoners is the weather. The Jewish prisoners have to struggle to survive in spite of the inclement weather. Levi describes a day of forced labor, in which the appearance of the sun in the sky, even when not able to warm more, means so much for those who do not have clothes to warm themselves with. 

With the appearance of the sun, the scenery is striking. Though green meadows provide some color to the surrounding background, in Buna the prevalent color is grey because of the prevalence of the mud and smoke, and the grey roads and buildings which give the impression that Buna is a large city. This camp holds 40,000 workers, who speak from 15 to 20 languages. This implies that the prisoners come from a diverse background, and since they also can speak more than one language, it shows that they are intellectuals.  Levi refers to the current condition in which he finds himself to that of a slave. Because of the sun, Levi calls this day “good”, yet this remark carries with it certain ironical connotations given the harsh conditions of the lager they have to endure and the constant fight with hunger. The prisoners maintain their hope that the camp will be liberated. As such, as depicted in Chapter 8—This Side of Good and Evil, the prisoners await for the “ceremony of the change of underclothes” and since this process is delayed, many wonder if this is so because the liquidation of the camp is in the near future. 


Levi describes how in the camp, bread and soup represent the money through which one can acquire for himself a piece of clothing, maybe a shirt, mahorca, or other basic necessities.  He also makes reference to the corruption in the camp as in Ka Be, the nurses profit by selling the clothes and shoes of the dead as well as the spoons of the dead and of those who are released from the infirmary. As such, the message of the author is that in the camp, theft, which would be considered illegal in the outside world, has acquired different meanings in the camp, and it has become a commonplace activity due to the degenerative conditions of the camp and the corruptions of those in charge of the camp.
In “The Drowned and the Saved”(Chapter 9), Levi reflects on the debilitating effects of the camp life on the human condition. He points out that the notion that in the face of extreme adverse conditions, the prisoner is reduced to being “brutal, egoistic, and stupid….a man without inhibition” (p.102) is actually a misconception. Rather what actually happens is that “many social habits and instincts are reduced to silence” (p.102-103). Furthermore, the term “muselman” emerges to describe “the weak, the inept, those doomed to selection” (p.104) who “drowned” in a short period of time being either selected to be killed or died from exhaustion, while the opposite term is described as “Organisator”, “Kombinator”, “Prominent” (p.105) who must struggle to “save” themselves. In the camp, each individual must struggle to survive on his own, and those who do not do so make bad company.  He remarks that sadly the law of the lager is reminiscent of the process of natural selection. However, the Aryan prisoners receive preferential treatment, and they are able to secure for themselves easily a position in the professional hierarchy of the camp.

Subsequently, Levi portrays the stories of four prisoners in order to show how it is possible to survive in the camp. These are: Schepschel, Alfred L., Elias, and Henri. Levi recounts that Schepschel survived the Lager for 4 years. He is originally from the village of Galicia, and he witnessed the death of thousands of those like him. He steals brooms and sells them to the Brockaltester, and he hopes to gain his favor so as to be appointed “vat-washer”.

Alfred L. is an engineer, who managed to get an extra half-ladleful of soup everyday by cleaning the pots of the Polish workers. He cleaned himself to have a “respectable appearance” (p.111) and managed to impose himself to become the “technical head of the Kommando” (p.112). Elias was a dwarf yet he had big muscles and became famous as an exceptional worker. Levi remarks he is also an astute thief (p.115), and he has a strong will to survive letting himself be neither physically destructed from outside nor morally destructed inside.  Yet, life in the lager makes it as such that there are neither criminals nor madmen, and as the free will of men has been taken away, one must adapt to the “primordial conditions of the camp life” (p.115). Henry, on the other hand, is a 22-year old prisoner, a polyglot who speaks French, German, English, and Russian. Henri has three methods of survival, which are organization, pity and theft. He had organized his strategy of gaining the pity of Polish prisoners, and so he engaged in exchanging products of English origin. Henri has numerous protectors in the camp, so he does not have to steal unless he has to.

Levi has a university decree from the University of Turin (1941-Summa cum laude) as described in Chapter 10 and Chapter 11, which enables him to pass the chemical Examination and obtain a “luxury job” in the Chemical Kommando, cleaning an underground petrol tank.  He meets Doctor Pannwitz, an Aryan-looking German, who interviews Levi and is pleased with his knowledge of Organic Chemistry. By August 1944, when convoys were arriving from Hungary (Chaper 12-The Events of the Summer), Levi already refers himself as an “old Haftlinge”. There is some hope in the camp of liberation since the Allied Powers landed in Normandy at this time.  At this point, they also bombard the Upper Silesia. The Buna concentration camp was falling into pieces as planes bombarded the area. At this point, he also meets Lorenzo, an Italian civilian worker who is kind to Levi and gives him food and some clothing, and he also helps him get in touch with relatives in Italy. Levi remarks that he believes Lorenzo helped him survive and not forget he is a human being.

As described in Chapter 13, October 1944 marks the arrival of winter. In this chapter, Levi describes how selections take place. He remarks that the prisoners are aware of the significance of winter since they were here a year ago, and the statistics are that seven out of 10 prisoners would die. Furthermore, there will be much suffering and hunger. Moreover, the Germans would also come to make selections as to make space in the camp by reducing the number of prisoners. Levi is aware of the criteria by which prisoners are selected, but he does not have the heart to tell it to those who appear to be candidates for selection what will happen to them and so he encourages them instead, giving them hope.  During this time, at Birkenau there is smoke coming out from the chimney because the murders are in progress. When selection takes place, the prisoners are closed in the huts so they will not see those who are leaving for the gas chambers.  They must wait naked in the hut, with their identification cards, until the commission arrives to the huts. The decision of who will live or die is not based just on who is fit for labor, but also on the whims of the SS men who do the selection, and who may as well wrongfully give the card to the wrong side and send people to the gas chambers without much thought. Later (Chapter 14— Kraus), Levi remarks that humans are prone to search for signs that may give hope so as to continue living. He also depicts the methods by which one could commit suicide in the camp—touch the electric wire-fence or throw oneself under the shunting trains. He describes another prisoner Kraus Pali, and he remarks that the camp makes it as such that other people don’t seem to matter anymore, but rather the hunger, cold, and rain seem to me the only things occupying one’s mind at these time.

In Chapter 15-Die drei Leute vom Labor, Levi calculates the time period he has spent in the camp and remarks that only 29 out of the 96 prisoners who were selected for labor were able to survive until October, eight were selected for the gas chambers, and so only 21 remained.  Now, the air raids have stopped. In spite of the cold, the prisoners are still wearing their summer clothes. As a “chemist”, he works now at the phenyl-beta sacks, which painfully attacks the skin. In addition, the arrival of winter brings with it feelings of desperation. In a way, it is fortunate that Doctor Pannwitz chooses Levi to be one of the three who will work in the Laboratory, which improves his living condition, as he will receive a new shirt and underpants and will be shaved once a week. At this point, the majority of new prisoners who arrived in the camp are sent to the gas chambers while only a minority is sent to forced labor. In Chapter 16-The Last One, Levi witnesses a hanging, and he notes that there have been 13 hangings before. He remarks that the month before, the crematorium at Birkenau was blown up, and now the Germans are going to hang someone who took part in the revolt against this infamous crematorium. Levi notes that there are no strong men left as this was the last courageous man who was hanged.

In the last Chapter 17, The Story of Ten Days, Levi recounts the final days spent in the camp before the arrival of the Red Army. He was sent to Ka Be on January 11, 1945 suffering from scarlet fever. Others admitted to the hospital had also scarlet fever. Here, there were also patients with diphtheria, typhus, dysentery, facial erysipelas, or pneumonia. Since the Russian Army is near, the Germans began evacuating the camp in a 12-mile march. During the night of January 18, 1945, almost 20,000 prisoners left in the march and Levi notes that the majority disappeared without a trace.  Outside, there was a bitter cold of –20 degrees Celsius. Soon, airplanes come and begin bombarding the nearby area, and then they struck the camp as well. At this point, the Germans had already left.  On January 27th, 1944 the Russians arrive while the narrator and his companion Charles were carrying one of the patients who had died during the night on a stretcher outside of the infirmary.  Levi ends “If This is a Man” noting how some of the fellow prisoners at Auschwitz started to rebuild their lives after Auschwitz was finally liberated.

Overall this memoir is noteworthy for the study of the Holocaust since it provides the reader with first hand testimony from a Holocaust survivor. Primo Levi’s style is clear and to the point, and it provides a vivid account of the atrocity of the events taking place. This account is reminiscent of Elie Wiesel’s own account as a Holocaust survivor as depicted in “Night” as well as in “All Rivers Run to The Sea”.

Though the memoir “If This is a Man” ends here, Levi continues to recount his journey back home from Auschwitz in “The Truce” where he describes in more detail the arrival of the Russian Army and the events that took place from this point on, and his long journey of returning home to Italy. Furthermore, the Holocaust memoirs provide the readers with an opportunity to remember those who perished at the hands of the Nazis, and whose lives were heartlessly curtailed abruptly and unnaturally, and yet, who in a way get to be here with us again through the account of those who have preserved their memories in their hearts and in their writing.